that can be used in the constraint analysis equations above. Making statements based on opinion; back them up with references or personal experience. The essence of all this is that if we even have only three primary design objectives; a cruise specification, a climb requirement, and a takeoff or landing constraint, we can end up with three different values for wing area and thrust required for a given aircraft weight. (meters/second), Conversion of airspeed to horizontal velocity: -- why? 5.4 When an aircraft enters ground effect, what effect does it have on induced drag? 6.25 Endurance is _____________ fuel flow. 3.6 Air passing over a cambered airfoil at 0o AOA yields, A higher velocity over the top of the wing compared to the bottom of the wing. So no re-plotting is needed, just get out your ruler and start drawing. Calculate (or find in Table 2.1) the approximate Density Altitude. And both approaches are maximizing the same angle on the right triangle comprised of the vertical speed, horizontal speed, and airspeed vectors. 11.16 ____________ is caused by the buildup of the hydrodynamic pressure at the tire-pavement contact area. This can be determined from the power performance information studied in the last chapter. 6.12 The equation T= Q(V2- V1) indicates the thrust output of an engine can be increased by either increasing the mass airflow or ________________? 13.15 (Reference Figure 14.10) How many degrees of bank are required for a standard rate turn (3 degrees per second) at 420 knots? Calculate (or find in Table 2.1) the Temperature Ratio: 2.11 An airplane is operating from an airfield that has a barometric pressure of 28.86 in. 1.14 An airplane with a mass of 250 slugs accelerates down the takeoff runway with a net force of 3,000 lb. The plane is directly over a point on the ground that is 3 nautical miles from the takeoff point and the altimeter reads 12,152 feet. 7.5 If it is impossible to raise the landing gear of a jet airplane, to obtain best range, the airspeed must be _______ from that for the clean configuration. We could put these limits on the same plot if we wish. 4.18 Using Fig. Classify the monosaccharide structure in Problem 18.71 as an \alpha-anomer or a \beta-anomer. 6.19 For a turbojet, each pound of drag requires a pound of ____________ to offset it. 1.16 An airplane weighs 8,000 lbs and is flying at 6,000 ft altitude and an airspeed of 200 fps. It does this by looking at two important ratios, the thrust-to-weight ratio (T/W), the wing loading or ratio of weight-to-planform area (W/S). 11.14 During a landing in a tricycle gear aircraft, ________ braking is used before _________. Maximum rate of climb for a propeller airplane occurs: a. at L/D max b. at CLmax c. at PRmin d. at (PA-PR) max. And its climbing performance may be even worse! 8.17 An engine that utilizes compressed air, via a compressor, to provide sea level performance to approximately 18,000 feet. 1.10 An aircraft is in a steady climb, at an airspeed of 100 knots, and the flight path makes a 10 angle with the horizontal. Any combination of W/S and T/W within that space will meet our design goals. Stall Cutoff for cap W over cap S values. CC BY 4.0. How does a fixed-pitch propeller changes the blade's angle of attack? Since you've already shown us a perfectly good graph of vertical speed versus airspeed, you might as well use it via the method described here. Cruising at V Y would be a slow way to fly. the point of minimum pressure is moved backward. Figure 9.1: James F. Marchman (2004). 7.7 (Reference Figure 7.5) Figure 7.5 shows an increase in specific range with altitude because, Fuel flow remains about the same while airspeed increases, 7.8 A jet airplane is flying to obtain maximum specific range. The analysis may suggest that some of the constraints (i.e., the performance targets) need to be relaxed. 8.6 Propeller aircraft are more efficient than jet aircraft because, They process more air and don't accelerate it as much, 8.7 Turboprop aircraft are classified as power producers because. Wing loading for sailplanes is usually in the range of 5-8 pounds per square foot, around 17 lb/ft2 for general aviation planes, and over 100 lb/ft2 for fighters. 11.10 The minimum glide angle also corresponds to ____________________. Hg and a runway temperature of 20C. We cant fly straight and level at speeds below the stall speed or above the maximum speed where the drag equals the maximum thrust from the engine. 3.7 The Center of Pressure __________ move with a change in AOA for a symmetrical airfoil, while it ____________ move with a change in AOA for a cambered airfoil. Often a set of design objectives will include a minimum turn radius or minimum turn rate. 4.10 and the following data: W = 25,000 lb, wing area S = 300 ft2,CL(max), sea level, standard day. Hg and a runway temperature of 20C. And they may be different still in climb. What is the stall speed? 5.6 Which of the following is a type of parasite drag? Find the Drift Angle. Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach, AIAA, Washington, DC. 10.5 What effect does a tailwind have on takeoff performance? 11.1, what is the minimum landing distance required (50 ft obstacle on final approach) for the given aircraft with the following conditions: 30C OAT, PA 2000 ft, weight 2800 lb., 5-kt tailwind? In reality, the specific excess power relationship tells us how the excess engine power, Pavail Preq , can be used to increase the aircrafts potential energy (climb) or its kinetic energy (speed). It is, for example, a common mistake for students to look at the performance goals for an aircraft design and just plug in the numbers given without thinking about them. How does wind affect the airspeed that I should fly for maximum range in an airplane? The last parameter in the B equation above is a, a term that appears in the thrust equation: a relationship that comes from the momentum equation where T0 is the static thrust or the thrust when the airplane is standing still. This relationship proves to be a little messy with both ratios buried in a natural log term and the wing loading in a separate term. 9.15 If an aircraft with a clean configuration deploys gear and approach flaps, yet desires to maintain the same indicated speed as before the gear and flaps were deployed, which of the following has to be increased? To truly be expert, one must confirm the units of climb and airspeed. With metric units for speed (meters per second), this is the case. Hence, what we have done through the specific excess power relationship is nothing but a different way to get a familiar result. Figure 6.1: Finding Velocity for Maximum Range 7.20 When a pilot lowers the landing gear, _______________ is increased. Modern propellers on larger aircraft would always be equipped with automatic feathering provisions. In many aircraft the difference between horizontal speed and airspeed will be trivial. Power required is the power needed to maintain straight and level flight, i.e., to overcome drag and to go fast enough to give enough lift to equal the weight. 11.13 Jet aircraft do not suffer from a thrust deficiency at low airspeeds. Find the Groundspeed. 1.2 The aerodynamic component that is 90 to the flight path and acts toward the top of the airplane is called: 1.3 The aerodynamic component that is parallel to the flight path and acts toward the rear of the airplane is called: 1.4 The measure of the amount of material contained in a body is called: 1.5 The force caused by the gravitational attraction of the earth, moon, or sun is called: 1.6 A quantity that has both magnitude and direction is called: 1.7 An aircraft flying from AUO to ATL at 5,000 feet and 110 KIAS is said to have what kind of quantity? 6.22 Vx is also known as _____________________. 2.6 The corrections that must be made to indicated airspeed (IAS) to obtain calibrated airspeed (CAS) are: 2.7 The correction from equivalent airspeed (EAS) to true airspeed (TAS) is dependent on: 2.8 An airplane is operating from an airfield that has a barometric pressure of 28.86 in. 4.17 Laminar flow involves the rapid intermixing of the air levels over a wing. The figure below (Raymer, 1992) is based on a method commonly used in industry. Of course when someone metricly assumes that one is both climbing and flying forward in m/s, that must be some airplane! The above relationship means that, for a given weight of the airplane, the rate of climb depends on the difference between the power available and the power required, or the excess power. 10.1, what is the minimum takeoff distance required to climb over a 50 ft obstacle, for the given aircraft with the following conditions: 10C OAT, PA 2000 ft, weight 2700 lb., 10-kt headwind. <> 13.14 (Reference Figure 14.10) What airspeed must an aircraft maintain at 50 degrees of bank to achieve 10,000 feet radius of turn? What is the typical climb angle (versus the ground) of a single engine piston plane? We could get a different curve for different cruise speeds and altitudes but at any given combination of these this will tell us all the combinations of thrust-to-weight values and wing loadings that will allow straight and level flight at that altitude and speed. The climb angle will be the arcsine of (vertical speed / airspeed). Effect of Aircraft Parameters on Takeoff Distance. CC BY 4.0. 10.23 Using Fig. Suppose that a 1.0-mm-thick layer of water is inserted into one arm of a Michelson interferometer. Assuming you maintain a constant altitude, a decrease in temperature will: The pressure of the air at the level of consideration divided by the sea level standard pressure, Equal to pressure ratio divided by temperature ratio. 7.18 Increasing the weight of a thrust-producing aircraft moves all points on the thrust-required curve ____________. 10.16 As a rule of thumb, a 5% increase in takeoff distance can be expected for every _______ of uphill slope. You need not use the actual point where the straight line touches the curve. 9.1 The power-required curves for an increase in altitude show that the, Pr increases by the same amount as the velocity, 9.2 A propeller aircraft in the dirty condition shows that the Pr moves up and to the left over the clean configuration. endobj 13.20 An aircraft in a level, coordinated turn with a bank angle of 60 is maintaining _____ G's. % stream 4.23 Stall is airflow separation of the boundary layer from the lifting surface. Find the kinetic energy. @quietflyer It does not matter as long as the units are the same. 13.8 (Reference Figure 5.4) An aircraft flying at 200 knots can pull how many G's before stalling the aircraft? 9.5 Altitude effects Obviously altitude is a factor in plotting these curves. The standard RoC formula (using FPM and LBS) usually shows the excess HP at sea level at max gross to be around 33% of the rated HP for most GA propeller aircraft. 6.17 Maximum endurance will permit your aircraft to obtain the best distance for the fuel consumed. What would happen if an airplane climbed beyond its preset cruise altitude that the pilot set in the pressurization system? The question with the design of an airplane as with a car or a tire, is how do we arrive at the best compromise that will result in a good all around design while still being better than average in one or two desired areas? 1.18 An aircraft's turbojet engine produces 10,000 lbs of thrust at 200 knots true airspeed. Steeper approach angle with a touchdown closer to the approach end of the runway, 11.22 A high roundout during landing may result in ______, Slowing of the aircraft well above the runway with increasing angle of attack. This addition to the plot tells us the obvious in a way. 10.21 A _____ increase in weight results in _____ increase in takeoff distance. Or in some cases the power-to-weight ratio (P/W) is used instead of T/W. This data can give us a place to start by suggesting starting values of things like takeoff weight, wing area, aspect ratio, etc. 7.16 With a typical drag curve, how many times does the thrust available line intersect the thrust required curve? 5.5 Laminar flow airfoils (NACA 66-XX series) are designed for the airflow to remain laminar much further back from the leading edge than on the conventional airfoils. Another good text that combines an examination of the design process with a look as several design case studies is Aircraft Design Projects for Engineering Students, by Jenkinson and Marchman, published by the AIAA. 8.10 In order to maximize range on a propeller-driven airplane at high altitude, true airspeed should be _____________. 8.13 A propeller where the blade pitch setting is either hydraulically or electrically controlled. , Does an airfoil drag coefficient takes parasite drag into account? Therefore both approaches must have the same solution: when the ratio of vertical speed to airspeed is maximized, then the ratio of vertical speed to horizontal speed is also maximized. 11.12 Which of the following aircraft derive more lift due to high power settings? At maximum weight it has a VY of 75 kn (139 km/h) indicated airspeed [4] providing a rate of climb of 721 ft/min (3.66 m/s). How many "extra" wavelengths does the light now travel in this arm? To escape wake turbulence a pilot should avoid, 12.9 Wake turbulence is typically characterized by. Rate of climb at maximum power for a small aircraft is typically specified in its normal operating procedures but for large jet airliners it is usually mentioned in emergency operating procedures. If, for example, we want to look at conditions for straight and level flight we can simplify the equation knowing that: Straight and level flight: n = 1, dh/dt = 0, dV/dt = 0, giving: So for a given estimate of our designs profile drag coefficient, aspect ratio, and Oswald efficiency factor [ k = 1/(ARe)] we can plot T/W versus W/S for any selected altitude (density) and cruise speed. Note here that the weight in the equation is the landing weight but that in calculating this landing distance for design purposes the takeoff weight is usually used for general aviation aircraft and trainers and is assumed to be 0.85 times the takeoff weight for jet transports. In fact, the equations used to find the maximum range for either a jet or a prop aircraft assume flight at very low speeds, speeds that one would never really use in cruise unless desperate to extend range in some emergency situation. 5.19 An aircraft will begin to experience ground effect_____________ above the surface. stream Planned Maintenance scheduled March 2nd, 2023 at 01:00 AM UTC (March 1st, We've added a "Necessary cookies only" option to the cookie consent popup, Ticket smash for [status-review] tag: Part Deux. The plot that will be different from all of these is that for takeoff. In this approach a Take-Off-Parameter, TOP, is proposed to be a function of W/S, T/W, CLTO, and the density ratio sigma () where: The value of TOP is found from the chart above. 5.23 For a given aircraft wing, if the wing span increases and the average chord remains the same, the aspect ratio will __________. 4.1 The portion of the boundary layer airflow known as laminar flow is characterized by, Reverses flow direction when stall occurs, 4.3 Adverse pressure gradient on an airfoil is found, c. From the point of minimum pressure to the trailing edge, 4.5 List the two types of stalls that are of interest to the non-jet pilot, 4.10 As thickness of an airfoil is increased, the stall AOA, 4.11 As camber of an airfoil is increased, its CL at any AOA, 4.12 A smaller Reynolds number (less than 0.5 million) indicates, 4.13 A large Reynolds number (greater than 10 million) indicates, 4.14 The thicker the airfoil, ___________________. If we were to look at the relationships we found for any of these we could see how we might design an airplane to best accomplish the task at hand. The steepest climb angle occurs when the ratio of vertical speed to horizontal speed is maximized. What other design objectives can be added to the constraint analysis plot to further define our design space? By optimum we mean that we are looking for the minimum thrust-to-weight ratio that will enable the airplane to meet its performance goals and we would like to have the highest possible wing loading. The maximum angle of climb occurs where there is the greatest difference between the thrust available and the thrust required. c. By how many fringes will this water layer shift the interference pattern? Tangent from 0, 0 to the curve yields point of max climb angle (maximum height for least distance traveled). How can I find the maximum climb angle of a propeller driven aircraft from a graph of vertical velocity against airspeed? 12.1 Which statement is true with respect to Lift Coefficient (CL) and the Effect of Sweepback on Coefficient of Lift - Angle of Attack (AOA) curves? Figure 9.3: James F. Marchman (2004). It can tell us how much speed we can gain by descending to a lower altitude, converting potential energy to kinetic energy, or how we can perhaps climb above the static ceiling of the aircraft by converting excess speed (kinetic energy) into extra altitude (potential energy). This page titled 9: The Role of Performance in Aircraft Design - Constraint Analysis is shared under a CC BY 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by James F. Marchman (Virginia Tech Libraries' Open Education Initiative) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is available upon request. Connect and share knowledge within a single location that is structured and easy to search. In other words this equation is really an energy balance. It should be recalled that CLg is the value of lift coefficient during the ground roll, not at takeoff, and its value is /2k for the theoretically minimum ground run. The best answers are voted up and rise to the top, Not the answer you're looking for? 7.17 Changing the weight of an aircraft changes the ______________ much more than the ___________. Now, to simplify things a little we are going to use a common substitution for the dynamic pressure: We will also define the lift coefficient in terms of lift and weight using the most general form where in a turn or other maneuver lift may be equal to the load factor n times the weight. a. Multi-engine propeller (engines on the wings). This is because, The increase is mostly due to parasite Pr, 9.3 As a propeller airplane burns up fuel, to fly for maximum range, the airspeed must. It weighs 2,605 lbs and has a maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) of 3,650 lbs. The value of T/W will depend on the desired flight speed, the wing area, and the efficiency (L/D) of the wing. b. 2.13 Using Table 2.1 and the appropriate equation, calculate the dynamic pressure, q, at 7,000 ft density altitude and 140 knots TAS. 12.23 An aircraft in which of the following situations is most likely to create the most intense wake turbulence? Obviously altitude is a factor in plotting these curves. See Page 1. The ones that spring to mind are A/C weight, temperature, and density altitude. 2. Is this a reasonable flight speed? 6.15 Which one of the following items does not occur at (L/D)max for a jet aircraft? This can be put into the drag equation with the numbers found above to get the thrust or power needed to reach that maximum speed. Acknowledgment: Thanks to Dustin Grissom for reviewing the above and developing examples to go with it. Find the distance in nautical miles that it has flown through the air. 10.14 When taking off from a high-density altitude airport, the ________ will be higher than at sea level. 8.21 For a power-producing aircraft, maximum climb angle is found. These included takeoff and landing, turns, straight and level flight in cruise, and climb. 1.19 An aircraft weighs 12,000 lbs. Just as a car cannot get its best gas mileage when the car is moving at top speed, an airplane isnt going to get maximum range at its top cruise speed. 12.25 In the absence of a published procedure, what is the typical first-step recommendation in order to initiate recovery from an incipient spin in a straight-wing, general aviation aircraft? The first step in the process is usually to look for what are called comparator aircraft, existing or past aircraft that can meet most or all of our design objectives. An iterative solution may be necessary. 2245 7.11 (Reference Figure 7.2) Using Figure 7.2, find the velocity for best range for the airplane at 12,000 lbs. 15. 4.21 When analyzing the air moving from the leading edge toward the trailing edge of a wing, until the air reaches the point of minimum pressure it is in a favorable pressure gradient. 1.21 Newton's Second Law of Motion states that: If a body is acted on by an unbalanced force, the body will accelerate in the direction of the force and the acceleration will be directly proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the mass of the body. Pull how many fringes will this water layer shift the interference pattern angle corresponds... 6.19 for a power-producing aircraft, maximum climb angle will be the arcsine of ( vertical speed to horizontal is. A set of design objectives will include a minimum turn radius or minimum turn radius or minimum rate! 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